Namo Buddhaya,
The Yogaacaaraa and Maadhyamika Interpretation of the Buddha-nature Concept in Chinese Buddhism
Ming-Wood Liu
Philosophy East and West, Volume 35, no. 2, April 1985
P.171-192
© by University of Hawaii Press
The idea of Buddha-nature was first made popular in China in the early fifth century with the translation of the Mahaayaana Mahaaparinirvaa.nasuutra (hereafter cited as MNS),(1) and since then, it has remained one of the central themes of Chinese Buddhist thought. Already in the fifth and early sixth centuries, a wide variety of theories on the Buddha-nature had begun to appear, but extant information about them remains scanty and scattered.(2) It is in the writings of Ching-ying Hui-yuan(a) (523-592) , (3) the Yogaacaarin, and in Chi-tsang(b) (549-623), the Maadhyamika, that we find the earliest available full-scale treatments of the subject. Hui-yuan and Chi-tsang hold a number of views in common with respect to the question of Buddha-nature:
(a) Both regard the Buddha-nature doctrine as among the principal tenets of Mahayana Buddhism.(4)
(b) Both accept the MNS as the final canonical authority on the problem of Buddha-nature.(5)
(c) Both affirm that all sentient beings without exception possess the Buddha-nature in the sense that every one of them will attain Buddhahood one day.(6)
Nevertheless, given their very different theoretical upbringings and doctrinal affiliations, it is inevitable that they would carry to their explanations of the Buddha-nature concept some of the basic principles and assumptions of their respective philosophical traditions. In examining and comparing the Buddha-nature teachings of Hui-yuan and Chi-tsang our present study attempts to show how the Buddha-nature concept has come to assume divergent significances when read in the context of the two main streams of thought in Mahaayaana Buddhism: Yogaacaara and Maadhyamika.
I Hui-Yuan's Teaching of Buddha-Nature (7)
Background
In calling Hui-yuan a Yogaacaarin, we have in consideration his close connection with the Ti-lun(c) and She-lun(d) schools, ( 8 ) which trace doctrinal lineages back to the Da`sabhuumikasuutra`saastra (Ti-lun) and Mahaayaanasa.mgraha`saastra (She-lun) of Vasubandhu and Asa^nga, the founders of Yogaacaara Buddhism in India, respectively. The teachings of these two schools represent the initial Chinese response to Yogaacaara thought when the latter was first imported into China in the sixth and seventh centuries,(9) their most distinctive characteristic being their belief in the existence in every sentient being of an intrinsically pure consciousness, from which evolves the entire phenomenal world which the individual experiences.(10) This belief finds its clearest expression in the writings of Hui-yuan, who declares that “All dharmas without exception originate and are formed from the true[-mind], and other than the true[-mind], there exists absolutely nothing which can give rise to false thoughts.”(11) Hui-yuan equates this true-consciousness with the aalaya or the eighth consciousness in the Yogaacaara scheme of reality,(12) and designates it with such terms as “the tathaagatagarbha,” (13) “the substance of enlightenment,” (14) “the tathataa-consciousness,” (15) and so forth. However, despite its immaculate nature, the true-consciousness gives birth to the first seven consciousnesses and their corresponding objects, that is, the entire sa.msaaric realm, due to the permeation of ignorance and bad habits accumulated from the beginningless past, like ocean forming waves when stirred by wing.(16) But just as ocean water never loses its wet nature even when assuming an undulating appearance, the true-consciousness also never forfeits its inherent purity when serving as ground for the appearance of defiled phenomena. And once ignorance is destroyed, the true-mind’s tainted functions will also cease, and it will be its unpolluted self again.(17) Thus, enlightenment in the Hui-yuan system of thought is basically the revealing of a preexistent true essence:
By “true awakening,” [we have in mind those practitioners who understand perfectly that] the true nature of enlightenment has always been the substance of their being. [In the past,] their [true-] mind was covered by false thoughts. As they were unaware of what is actually present [in themselves], they considered [the nature of enlightenment] as something external, and tried to procure it by reaching outward. Later, having brought an end to false thoughts, they apprehend fully their own [true] essence. Knowing that enlightenment has always been the substance of their being, they do not turn to outside sources to obtain it.(18)
The preceding constitutes the general conceptual framework within which Hui-yuan constructs his interpretation of the Buddha-nature tenet.(19)
What is “Buddha-Nature”?
“Buddha-nature” (fo-hsing(e)) is the Chinese translation of a number of closely related Sanskrit terms such as “buddhadhaatu,” “buddhagotra,” “buddhagarbha,” “tathaagatagarbha,” and so forth(20) and its connotation usually varies with context. In the MNS, it is primarily used to indicate what constitutes a Buddha, that is, the nature or realm of the Buddha.(21) Since Hui-yuan, like most of the theorists of the Buddha-nature of his time. takes the MNS as the point of departure of his expositions of the Buddha-nature, this explains why it comes to be associated with such apparently mutually exclusive concepts as sa.msaara and nirvana, identity and difference, being and emptiness, external and internal, and so forth in the MNS.(23) He also describes the Buddha-nature as something that “in truth trascends [all] forms and names, and can not be comprehended by thought and language. It is the object of the true knowledge which neither procures nor abandons; and embodies [all] the mysteries [pertaining to] the wonderful understanding of the holy wisdom.” (24) But unlike the MNS, in which discussions of the Buddha-nature are in general devoid of ontological implication, (25) in Hui-yuan's philosophy of true-mind, the nature of the Buddha is pictured as a metaphysical principle which all sentient beings share and which ensures their final enlightenment. This conception of Buddha-nature is clearly reflected in Hui-yuan's explanation of the four meanings of Buddha-nature, when the word “nature” is interpreted as “essence” (t'i(f)):(26)
i. The essence of the cause of Buddhahood is known as Buddha-nature. This is the true-consciousness.
ii. The essence of the fruit of Buddhahood is known as Buddha-nature. This is the dharmakaaya.
iii. The same nature of enlightenment which is present in both the cause of Buddhahood and the fruit of Buddhahood is known as Buddha-nature. While the cause and the fruit [of Buddhahood] are always distinct, their essence is not different.
The preceding three meanings constitute the “cognitive aspect” (neng-chih ksing(g) ) [of buddha-nature]. They pertain only to sentient beings and are not shared by the nonsentient.
iv. We designate in general the essence of dharmas as “nature.” This nature is perfectly comprehended by the Buddhas only. Considering the essence of dharmas as [the object of comprehension of] the Buddhas, we call it Buddha-nature.
This last meaning constitutes the “cognized aspect” (so chih hsing(h)) [of Buddha-nature]. It covers both the internal (that is, sentient beings) and the external (that is, nonsentient objects) [realms].(27) By the “cognitive” and “cognized” aspects of Buddha-nature, Hui-yuan is referring primarily to the essence of enlightenment (iii) and the essence of reality (iv). respectively; the former “pertains only to sentient beings” because only the sentient can attain enlightenment, whereas the latter covers both the realms of the sentient and the nonsentient because reality comprises inanimate as well as animate objects.(28) In the Yogaacaara teaching of Hui-yuan, the essence of enlightenment is conveived of as embodied in all sentient beings as their true-mind, which forms the metaphysical ground of their eventual deliverance from ills. So the true-mind is known as "the essence of the cause of Buddhahood" (i). When the true-mind of sentient beings is set free from its association with adventitious defilements and fully realizes its originally endowed nondefiled nature, it becomes the Buddha-body per se, that is, the dharmakaaya (ii). So the dharmakaaya is known as “the essence of the fruit of Buddhahood.” Since the true-mind and the dharmakaaya are actually two states of the same essence of enlightenment, they can be designated as “Buddha-nature” in the same manner that the essence of enliphtenment itself and the essence of reality are called the “Buddha-nature.”
All in all, we can say that in the hands of Hui-yuan, the Buddha-nature concept has been integrated into the system of thought of Yogaacaara Buddhism and as a consequence assumes distinct ontological significances which are either not found or only dimly suggested in the MNS.
Buddha-Nature qua Cause and Effect
Since the Buddha-nature indicates in the MNS the realm of the Buddha, the category of cause and effect, which pertains to the realm of conditioned existence only, is strictly speaking not applicable to it. Nevertheless, as the Buddha-nature is not yet attained by sentient beings, and sentient beings are beings of the conditioned realm, the MNS often resorts to the notions of “cause” and “effect” in discussing the fulfillment of Buddha-nature in sentient beings. This practice receives additional impetus in the thinking of Hui-yuan, for as we have seen, Hui-yuan considers the nature of the Buddha as a transcendental reality which is at once present in all beings, with life of the conditioned realm as their intrinsically pure consciousness. The MNS talks of two types of causes of Buddha-nature when the Buddha-nature is considered with respect to sentient beings:
Good sons! With respect to sentient beings, the Buddha-nature also consists of two types of causes: first, direct cause (cheng-yin(i)), and secondly, auxiliary cause (yuan-yin(j)). The direct cause [of Buddha-nature] is sentient beings, and the auxiliary cause is the six paaramitaas.(29)
With respect to the fulfillment of the Buddha-nature by sentient beings, sentient beings are the “direct causes,” for only animate creatures can assume the excellences of the Tathaagata. However, enmeshed in defilements in the realm of sa.msaara. sentient beings would not be able to reach the state of Buddhahood without first following proper religious disciplines, among the most important of which are the six paaramitaas of charity, virtuous conduct, forbearance, zeal, meditation and wisdom. So the six paaramitaas are designated as the “auxiliary causes.” Hui-yuan brings in the tenet of the true-mind in commenting on the above passage:
It is because sentient beings are formed of [both aspects of] the true and the false, just as mineral stones [are constituted of both earth and mineral]. As [sentient beings] are formed of [both aspects of] the true and the false, [their true aspect] can act as the basis of the abandoning. of defilements and the achieving of pure virtues. So they are described as “direct causes.” Since [the functions of] the various paaramitaas are limited to the revealing of the true [aspect] by bringing to an end the false [aspect]. they are referred to as “auxiliary causes.”(30)
While the MNS regards sentient beings in general to be the direct cause of Buddha-nature because only beings with life can assume the excellences of the Buddha, it remains entirely indefinite with respect to the metaphysical ground of this belief.(31) Hui-yuan gives this thesis of universal enlightenment of the sentient of the MNS a definite ontological twist by linking it with the idea of the two aspects of the mind made famous by the Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin lun(k).(32) Since the mind of sentient beings possesses a true aspect, that is, the true-mind, it “can act as the basis of the abandoning of defilements and the achieving of pure virtues.” That explains why sentient beings are called “direct causes” of Buddha-nature. While the mind of sentient beings is true in essence, it comes to assume a false aspect due to the permeation of ignorance, and so needs the practising of the six paaramitaas to recover its original purity. So the six paaramitaas are called the “auxiliary causes.” The six paaramitaas are called “auxiliary,” because they do not create but only “reveal” the nature of enlightenment which is immanent.
Besides the thesis of the two types of causes of Buddha-nature, the analysis of the Buddha-nature in the MNS into “cause,” “cause vis-a-vis cause,” “effect,” “effect vis-a-vis effect,” and “neither cause nor effect” also receives considerable attention from posterity:
Good sons! The Buddha-nature has [the aspects of] cause, cause vis-a-vis cause, effect, and effect vis-a-vis effect. The cause is the twelvefold chain of dependent origination, the cause vis-a-vis cause is wisdom, the effect is the mose perfect enlightenment, and thhe effect vis-a-vis effect is the supreme nirvaa.na....As for to be “neither cause nor effect,” it is what is known as the Buddha-nature.(33)
Hui-yuan again resorts to the idea of the true-mind in explaining why the twelvefold chain of dependent origination (Buddha-nature qua “cause”) can be described as the “cause” of the supreme nirvaa.na (Buddha-nature qua “effect vis-a-vis effect”):
[THe realm of] dependent origination is formed of [both aspects of] the true and the false. Viewed from [the aspect of] the false, it is the creation of the false mind. Being illusory and empty, it[can]not be called Buddha-nature. Viewed from [the aspect of] the true, it is totally the product of the true mind.... Since it is formed from the true[-mind], the complete disclosure of its real substance is known as nirvaa.na. So [the realm of dependent origination] can be taken as the cause [of nirvaa.na]. And as the cause [of nirvaa.na], it can be called [Buddha-] nature.(34)
Since the mind of sentient beings comprises the double aspect of the true and the false, the sa.msaaric realm of dependent origination, which is regarded in Yogaacaara Buddhism as formation of the mind,(35) also shares the same feature. On the on hand, the realm of dependent origination is false, for it stems directly from the activities of the false aspect of the mind, and is in nature “illusory and empty.” On the other hand, the realm of dependent origination is true, for the false aspect of the mind from which it originates arises in turn dependent origination has as true aspect, and so ultimately speaking, the realm of dependent origination has as its “real substance” the true aspect of the mind, that is, in the true-mind. In Hui-yuan's opinion, when the MNS calls the twelvefold chain of dependent origination the “Buddha-nature qua cause” and gives as its “effect” and “effect vis-a-vis effect” the most perfect enlightenment and nirvaa.na, it has in view this “true-mind” which is its “real substance.”
Buddha-Nature and the Phenomenal World
Our discussions thus far have shown that the term "Buddha-nature" is employed by Hui-yuan not only to indicate the nature of the Buddha per se as in the MNS, but also to denote this nature in its capacity as the true essence of man, that is, as the intrinsically pure mind.(36) If we remember that in the Yogaacaara teaching of Hui-yuan the intrinsically pure mind is given as the origin of the phenomenal world as well as the ontological basis of enlightenment, (37) it would not be g to find Hui-yuan telling us that the Buddha-nature is the cause of both sa.msaara and nirvaa.na,(38) and that all forms of existence, be they soiled or unsoiled, are the creations of the "Buddha-nature as the true-mind" (fo-hsing chen-hsin(l)).(39)
The idea that the Buddha-nature as the true-mind is the source of the false phenomenal order is clearly brought out in Hui-yuan's division of Buddha-nature into the three aspects of "substance" (t'i(f) ) , "characteristic" (hsiang(m) ) , and "function" (yung(n)), in which the Buddha-nature is said to have defiled as well as pure functions:
As is taught by A`svagho.sa [in the Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin lun, the Buddha-nature can be] divided into three aspects according to its substance, characteristic, and function:
i. Greatness of "substance," that is, the nature of the tathataa.
ii. Greatness of"characteristic, " that is, the excellent qualities more numerous than the sand of the Ganges embodied in the tathataa.
iii. greatness of "function," that, the defiled and pure functions of the dharmad-haatu all arising from the pure mind.(40)
As this scheme of"substance," "characteristic," and "function" is first proposed in the Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin lun as analysis of the mind,(41) and is often used by Hui-yuan in his writings as such,(42) We can safely conclude that by "Buddha-nature" in the above quotation, Hui-yuan has none other than the original true-mind of sentient beings under consideration. While the true-mind is in "substance" the essence of the Tathataa and has as its "characteristic" innumerable merits, it is nevertheless not immune from the influence of ignorance, and it is due to the permeation of ignorance that it gives rise to defiled "functions" and becomes the source of the formation of impure phenomena. So Hui-yuan writes of the two forms of false functions of the true mind:
i. The function of ground and support: The tathaagathagarbha is the ground of the defiled and can support the defiled. If there is not the true [mind], defiled [phenomena] will not subsist....
ii. The function of origination: Formerly, [the true-mind] does not produce the defiled even while existing in the midst of defilements. Now, it unites with falsehood (that is. ignorance) and gives rise to defiled [phenomena], just as water fives rise to waves in response to wind.(43)
"The function of ground and support" denotes the true-mind as the underlying substance which accounts for the subsistence of the defiled phenomenal order. "The function of origination" denotes the true-mind as the fountainhead from which the defiled phenomenal order proceeds. Together, they teach that the impure has its root in the pure, and the nature of enlightenment, that is, the Buddha-nature, is what makes the existence of the world of sa.msaara possible.